025.431: The Dewey blog

Languages for Special Purposes; Translating

As noted in a recent post, over the past several months we have incorporated a number of changes in Table 4 Subdivisions of Individual Languages and Language Families and 400 Language into WebDewey.  This entry addresses changes announced in the December 2009 New and Changed Entries (in Word and PDF formats), which focused on new entries for languages for special purposes, translating materials on specific subjects, translating literature (belles-lettres) and rhetoric, translating literature from a specific language, and translating specific forms of literature.  The changes are given there only in the context of Table 4; parallel changes have also been made in the 400s, as can be seen in WebDewey and Abridged WebDewey.

Table 4 begins with a set of modifications to standard subdivisions, including (1) several extensions to the meaning of standard subdivisions (e.g., the addition of an including note for language acquisition, speech errors, a class-here note for psycholinguistics, and a scatter class-elsewhere note at –019 Psychological principles), (2) the displacement of several standard subdivision concepts to other notation (e.g., the do-not-use note at –03 Encyclopedias and concordances pertaining to dictionaries of standard form of language, which are to be classed instead in –3 Dictionaries of the standard form of the language), and (3) a few expansions (e.g., –042 Bilingualism, which does not occur in Table 1).  Most of the expansions involve adding further subdivisions under –014 Language and communication.  The newest of these is –0147 Languages for special purposes (also known as LSPs or sublanguages).  LSPs are languages that are used in specific contexts, often restricted by subject matter and/or level of expertise (e.g., the languages of medicine, law, advertising, broadcasting).  

Note that there is no expansion for LSPs in Table 1 Standard Subdivisions.  Therefore, a work like The language of medicine, its evolution, structure, and dynamics should continue to be classed in 610.14 Language of medicine (built with 61[0] Medicine plus notation 014 Language and communication from Table 1; the placeholder zero at the end of 610 is dropped before the standard subdivision is added), not in 610.147, since Table 4 notation is not used in this context.  Nor is there a need for an equivalent expansion here:  the class number 610.14 already adequately expresses the concept “language of medicine.”  The use of T4—0147 is restricted to contexts where the base notation represents a language or family of languages and a note specifically authorizing addition of notation from Table 4 or specifically authorizing use of notation from Table 1 “as modified under” Table 4 exists.  An example is Fachsprachen in der Romania.  Fachsprachen is the German term for languages for special purposes, while in linguistics, der Romania refers to areas in which Romance languages are spoken (incidentally, because der Romania has a special meaning in the field of linguistics, this expression belongs to an LSP).  The appropriate number for this work is 440.0147 Languages for special purposes of Romance languages (built with 44[0] Romance languages plus 0 (standard subdivisions for Romance languages use two zeros, while standard subdivisions for French use one) plus notation 0147 Languages for special purposes from Table 4 ; the placeholder zero at the end of 440 is dropped before the expanded standard subdivision is added).  The use of notation 0147 from Table 4 is authorized by the note at 440.01–440.03 Standard subdivisions of Romance languages:  “Notation from Table 1 as modified under T4—01–T4—03 in Table 4, e.g., semantics of Romance languages 440.0143.”  Notation T4—0147 is not expected to be used nearly as often as 401.47, its counterpart in the modified standard subdivisions at 401–409; 401.47 would be used for LSPs generally.  Examples of works that should be classed in 401.47 Languages for special purposes include Sublanguage: Studies of language in restricted semantic domains and Fachsprachen: ein internationales Handbuch zur Fachsprachenforschung und Terminologiewissenschaft = Languages for special purposes: An international handbook of special-language and terminology research.

In the past there has been only a single class in Table 4 and a single class in the 400s (T4—802 / 418.02) for translating and interpreting.  New entries have now been added for T4—803 / 418.03 Translating materials on specific subjects, T4—804 / 418.04 Translating literature (belles-lettres) and rhetoric, T4—80402–T4—80409 Translating literature from a specific language (there is no 418 equivalent, since a specific language is involved), and T4—8041–T4—8048 / 418.041–418.048 Translating specific forms of literature.  With regard to Table 4, all of these numbers follow a common pattern of using the base number for the language being translated into if the work is about translating into a specific language, the base number for the language being translated from if the work is about translating from a specific language into many languages, or the base number for the language coming later in 420–490 if the work is about translating in both directions between two languages.  (If the work is about translating from many languages into many languages, then a subdivision under 418 would be the appropriate choice.)

In the case of T4—802, notation from Table 6 Languages is added to express the language being translated from if the work is about translating from one language into one language or to express the language coming earlier in 420–490 if the work is about translating in both directions between two languages.  Table 6 notation is not added if the work is about translating from one language into many languages or from many languages into many languages; under no circumstances would Table 6 notation be added to 418.02.  For example, the work Structure of Meaning (SOM): Towards a three-dimensional perspective on translating between Chinese and English should be classed in 495.180221 Translating between Chinese and English (built with 495.1 Chinese [between English and Chinese, the language appearing later in 420–490] plus notation 802 Translating to and from other languages from Table 4 plus notation 21 English from Table 6).

In the case of T4—803 / 418.03, three-digit notation from 001–999 is added to express the subject.  However, fewer than three digits would be added if the number includes a zero that is not in initial position (the instruction reads “but stop before any zero that follows a non-zero number”).  These restrictions (three-digit notation; zeros only in initial position) are necessary to ensure that a specific number will not have more than one interpretation, since it is possible to add further notation from Table 6 to express the language translated from.  By way of example, the work Translation and medicine would be classed in 418.0361 Translating medical materials (built with 418.03 Translating materials on specific subjects plus 61 from 610 Medicine).

In the case of T4—80402–T4—80409, notation from Table 6 is added to express the specific language the literature is translated from.  For example, the work The Chinese translation of Russian literature: three studies should be classed in 495.180409171 Translating Russian literature into Chinese (built with 495.1 Chinese [the literature translated into] plus notation 8040 Translating literature from a specific language from Table 4 plus notation 9171 Russian from Table 6).

In the case of T4—8041–T4—8048 / 418.041–418.048, one-digit notation from Table 3B is added to express the literary form being translated.  For example, the work Advanced translation from Russian prose, which concerns translating Russian prose into English, should be classed in 428.04809171 Translating miscellaneous writings from Russian to English (built with 42[0] English plus notation 804 Translating specific forms of literature from Table 4 plus notation 8 Miscellaneous writings, representing notation 808 Prose literature from Table 3B, plus 0, following the instruction at T4—8041–T4—8048, plus notation 9171 Russian from Table 6).

Greenhouse Gas Mitigation and Prevention of Deforestation

With the recently ended United Nations climate summit in Copenhagen, cutting—or failing to cut—emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases has been in the news, e.g., “Climate Talks End with Eye on Next Year” and “Copenhagen Climate Accord: Key Issues.”

As has been noted before in the Dewey blog (“Carbon Neutral” and “Australia Sees the Light”), the interdisciplinary number for mitigation of greenhouse gases is 363.738746 Control of greenhouse gases (built with 363.73874 Greenhouse gases plus 6 Control from the add table under 362–363 Specific social problems and services, following the footnote instruction at 363.73874). In the entry for 363.73874 Greenhouse gases are the notes:  

Gases contributing to greenhouse effect (global warming)

Class here interdisciplinary works on greenhouse effect (global warming)

Examples of works classed in 363.738746 Control of greenhouse gases are Strategic Bargaining and Cooperation in Greenhouse Gas Mitigations: An Integrated Assessment Modeling Approach and Corporate Responses to Climate Change: Achieving Emissions Reductions through Regulation, Self-Regulation and Economic Incentives.

One approach to mitigating greenhouse gases is the United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD).  According to the REDD web site, “Deforestation and forest degradation, through agricultural expansion, conversion to pastureland, infrastructure development, destructive logging, fires etc., account for nearly 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the entire global transportation sector and second only to the energy sector.”  Supporters of REDD hoped that a legally binding agreement for the wealthy nations to finance REDD would emerge from the Copenhagen conference (“REDD Faces Defining Moment at Copenhagen Summit”), but they were disappointed (“Forest Plan Gets the Ax at UN Climate Talks”), and yet some progress was made (“Hope and Funding for Saving Forests around the World”).

In addition to the notes quoted above, the entry for 363.73874 Greenhouse gases has a scatter note:

For a specific aspect of greenhouse effect (global warming) not provided for here, see the aspect, e.g., changes in earth's temperature 551.5253, effect on ecology 577.276

Works on deforestation and forest degradation are classed in 333.75137 Abuse and wastage of forest lands (built with 333.75 Forest lands plus 137 Abuse and wastage from the add table under 333.7–333.9 Natural resources and energy, following the footnote instruction at 333.75).  An example of a work classed in 333.75137 is Logjam: Deforestation and the Crisis of Global Governance.

In the add table under 333.7–333.9, the entry 137 Abuse and wastage has the note: “Class prevention of abuse and wastage in 16.”  Hence works on prevention of deforestation and forest degradation are classed in 333.7516 Conservation and protection of forest lands (built with 333.75 plus 16 Conservation and protection from the add table under 333.7–333.9, following the footnote instruction at 333.75).  Works on the topic in developing countries are classed in 333.7516091724 (built with addition of T1—091 Treatment by areas, regions, places in general plus 724 from T2—1724 Developing regions, following instruction at T1—091).  An example of a work classed in 333.7516091724 is Rural Development through Carbon Finance: Forestry Projects under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol: Assessing Smallholder Participation by Structural Equation Modeling.

Computational Linguistics, Corpus Linguistics, and Pragmatics

A significant part of my Dewey life these past three years has been spent in Table 4 and the 400s.  In that period of time, eight—count them, eight!—EPC exhibits (most developed with my colleague Juli Beall) have focused on aspects of Table 4 and the 400s.  Work done in these two contexts (or maybe it’s just one context) has also spawned three blog entries during the same period.  One, named Language, Language Everywhere, commented on the underlying importance of language to much of what we do.  The other two solicited feedback on discussion papers in computational linguistics and language variations. 

A number of changes in Table 4 and the 400s have recently been incorporated into WebDewey, some of which were announced in the September 2009 New and Changed Entries (in Word and PDF formats); some of which were announced in the December 2009 New and Changed Entries (in Word and PDF formats); and, as previously announced, some of which (changes with respect to language variations) will not be implemented until the publication of DDC 23.  This entry will address changes in the September New and Changed Entries posting; a subsequent entry will address changes in the December New and Changed Entries posting.

The September 2009 New and Changed Entries posting included significant changes with respect to computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, and pragmatics.  As indicated in the previous blog entry on computational linguistics, we have relocated computational linguistics from 410.285 Linguistics computer applications to 006.35 Natural language processing, where computational linguistics now appears in the class-here note.  This (006.35) is now the number in which general works on computational linguistics should be classed.  Examples of such works include Speech and language processing: an introduction to natural language processing, computational linguistics, and speech recognition and Survey of the state of the art in human language technology.  According to the rule of application, works about the application of one subject (in this case, computational linguistics) to another subject, should be classed with the second subject.  The relocation opens up the possibility of expressing computational linguistics applications through the addition of standard subdivision notation T1–0285635 Computational linguistic applications (built with T1—0285 Computer applications plus notation 635 from 006.35 Natural language processing, following instructions at T1—0285).   Two such built numbers are given in the New and Changed Entries:  025.410285635 Automatic abstracting / automatic text summarization (built with 025.41 Abstracting plus notation 0285635 from Table 1, as analyzed above) and 401.430285635 Word sense disambiguation (built with 401.43 Semantics plus notation 0285635 from Table 1, as analyzed above).

We have expanded for corpus linguistics at 410.188 Corpus linguistics (under 410.18 Schools, theories, methodologies of linguistics, which itself is a previous expansion under 410.1 Philosophy and theory of linguistics).  In the past, many works on corpus linguistics have been classed with works on computational linguistics, since much of the research in corpus linguistics is done automatically, using computational linguistics techniques.  But this is not optimal, for multiple reasons.  For example, corpus linguistics is a methodology (not a set of techniques), based on the premise that linguistic study should be carried out on language as actually used rather than on language as generated introspectively (“arm-chair linguistics”).  Moreover, corpus linguistics includes aspects (e.g., selection of the language samples that will comprise the corpus) that may have nothing to do with computational linguistics.  Comprehensive works on corpus linguistics (like Corpus linguistics and the web) should now be classed in 410.188.  As a methodology, corpus linguistics is also subject to the rule of application.  Hence a work on corpus linguistics applied to a specific topic in linguistics would be classed with the topic; for example, Discourse on the move: using corpus analysis to describe discourse structure should be classed in 401.41 Discourse analysis.  And a work on corpus linguistics applied to a specific work or the works of a specific author should be classed with the work or author; for example, e-Lears: a Corpus Approach to Shakespeare and Tate should be classed in 822.33 William Shakespeare.  (The Tate adaptation of King Lear would be classed in 822.4 Drama of Restoration period, 1625-1702; as the work treats Shakespeare and Tate equally, it is the first-of-two rule that tips the balance in favor of the Shakespeare number, which comes earlier in the schedules.)

We have also expanded at 401.45 for Pragmatics, with subdivisions under it for 401.452 Speech acts (“Class here illocutionary acts”), 401.454 Presupposition (“Class here implication, entailment”), and 401.456 Reference (“Class here anaphora, deixis”).  In the past, the interdisciplinary number for pragmatics has been 306.44 Language (as an aspect of culture), because of the association between pragmatics and sociolinguistics.  An analysis of interdisciplinary works on pragmatics revealed that the better home for such works is in linguistics.  Therefore, 401.45 has now been designated as the appropriate number for interdisciplinary works on pragmatics.  (In addition to the association of pragmatics with sociolinguistics, there is a strong association of some of the subtopics of pragmatics with philosophy.  Class-elsewhere notes in the subdivisions of 401.45 remind the classifier to consider discipline first.)  Examples of works that should class in 401.45 and its subdivisions are:  Pragmatics and natural language understanding in 401.45 Pragmatics, Using language: The structures of speech acts in 401.452 Speech acts,   Presupposition and implicature in compositional semantics in 401.454 Presupposition, and Studies in anaphora in 401.456 Reference.

Comparable changes, as appropriate, have been made in Table 4.

Translations, Translations, Translations

Over the last three weeks, we’ve had that “If it’s Tuesday, it must be Arabic” feeling (with apologies to the movie title). We’ve had visits from members of the Arabic and Swedish translation teams, plus discussions with the Norwegian and Spanish translation teams (by e-mail and teleconference, respectively).

Ann Tobin, a member of the translation team at the National Library of Sweden, paid a working visit to the Dewey Editorial Office at the Library of Congress November 30-December 4. The Swedish translation will employ a mixed approach. The Introduction, Glossary, and Tables 1-6 will be translated into Swedish. The top levels of the schedules plus the full hierarchy of classes down to and including classes with a defined level of literary warrant will be translated into Swedish; the rest of the classes will be ingested directly into the translation as English-language records. Manual records will be translated if associated with classes in Swedish; otherwise, they will be included in English. The translation will be accompanied by separate indexes in Swedish and English. (For more information on the mixed translation model, see here; for more information about the adoption of the DDC in Sweden, see here.) During Ann’s visit, we reviewed the Swedish versions of the Introduction; Glossary; and Table 1, 4, and 6. We also discussed proposals and issues related to geographic areas, education, animal husbandry (yes, a new provision for reindeer farming will be coming to the DDC soon!), sports, literature, and historical periods. Additional topics of discussion included training, translation workflows, and WebDewey 2.0. Lest you think it was all work and no play, we managed to have many interesting meals together (and helped Ann execute her plan of trying a variety of hamburgers across the city) and even caught a world premiere of a new piano concerto by U.S. composer Jennifer Higdon at the Kennedy Center (see here for a review of the performance we attended together).

Our colleagues on the Spanish translation team in Colombia have just completed work on a local translation support system that produces DDC data in an XML format (one compatible with our current format). We expect to start reviewing parts of the new full Spanish translation in early 2010.

Meanwhile, our colleagues at the National Library of Norway are busy planning for a new Norwegian translation of the full DDC (previous Norwegian translations have been customized abridgments of the DDC). Work will begin in early 2010.

Finally, yesterday (yes, Arabic on Tuesday) we had a visit from Dr. Sohair Wastawy (Bibliotheca Alexandrina) to discuss progress on the Arabic translation of the full DDC. We reviewed the translation timetable, plus the latest version of the proposed expansion for Islam.

Holiday Cookies

At this time of year many newspapers and web sites have recipes for holiday cookies (or outside of North America, holiday biscuits), e.g., “Holiday Cookie Recipes from Newspaper Food Sections,” “Our Favorite Holiday Cookies,” “12 Days of Cookies,” and “Christmas Recipes: Gingerbread Snowflake Biscuits.”

The Relative Index entries “Biscuits (Cookies)—home preparation” and “Cookies—home preparation” both lead to 641.8654 Cookies.  The entry for 641.8654 has the note “Variant name: biscuits (United Kingdom).” 

The Relative Index entry “Holidays—cooking” leads to 641.568 Cooking for special occasions, and the Relative Index entry “Christmas—cooking” leads to 641.5686 Christmas cooking. 

Most cookies are baked.  The Relative Index entry “Baking—home cooking” leads to 641.71 Baking and roasting.

Which number has preference, 641.8654 or 641.568+ or 641.71? The see references at 641.5 Cooking have hierarchical force: “For specific cooking processes and techniques, see 641.7; for cooking specific kinds of dishes, preparing beverages, see 641.8.”  The class-elsewhere note at 641.7 Specific cooking processes and techniques has hierarchical force: “Class specific processes applied to specific kinds of dishes, preparing beverages in 641.8.” Hence 641.8654 has preference, because of the notes above 641.568+ and 641.71 that lead away from 641.5 and 641.7 and their subdivisions and toward 641.8 and its subdivisions. Works on baking holiday cookies are classed in 641.8654, e.g., Baking with Bill: Fancy Holiday Cookies: 17 Video Baking Lessons, A Baker's Field Guide to Christmas Cookies, Christmas Cookies: 50 Recipes to Treasure for the Holiday Season, and Santa's Favourite Biscuits.

Traffic Safety

Recently National Public Radio has run a series entitled “On the Road to Safety,” exploring various aspects of traffic safety.

The interdisciplinary number for traffic safety is 363.125 Highway and urban vehicular transportation, a number that has 363.1 Public safety programs and 363.12 Transportation hazards in its upward hierarchy. The number 363.125 has unsubdivided Relative Index entries “Road safety” and “Traffic safety,” among others.  An example of a work classed in 363.125 is the World Health Organization’s Global Status Report on Road Safety (WorldCat record for summary here, full report available here). 

Works on safety engineering of roads are classed in appropriate subdivisions of 625.7 Roads, which has the Relative Index entry “Roads—engineering,” among others.  For example, works on protective roadside barriers are classed in 625.795 Protective roadside barriers.  An example of a work classed in 625.795 is Guardrail and Median Barrier Crashworthiness.  (The entry 625.795 has the note “Including dividers, fences.”)

The Relative Index entry “Safety engineering” leads to 620.86 Safety engineering.  The entry 620.86 has the note “For safety engineering of a specific technology, see the technology, plus notation T1—0289 from Table 1, e.g., safety in machine engineering 621.80289.”  The standard subdivision T1—0289 Safety measures is not added for topics in including notes, because those topics do not approximate the whole of a number; nor is T1—0289 added where redundant, as when the caption specifies safety. 

Works on safety engineering of motor land vehicles are classed in appropriate subdivisions of 629.2 Motor land vehicles, cycles.  For example, engineering works on safety design of motor land vehicles are classed in 629.231 Analysis and design (the entry has the note “Including . . . safety design” and the Relative Index entry “Safety engineering—automotive—design”).  An example of a work classed in 629.231 is Design for Safety & Quality: Lessons Learned from the Analysis of Crashed Daimler-Benz/Mercedes Automobiles: An Interview with Miklos F. Ranky.  (The entry 629.22 Types of vehicles has the class-elsewhere note “Class design, materials, construction of a specific type of vehicle in 629.23.”)  Engineering works on safety accessories in motor land vehicles are classed in 629.276 Safety accessories (the entry has the note “Including air bags, bumpers, mirrors, seat belts, windshield wipers and washers”).  An example of a work classed in 629.276 is Air Bags and Occupant Restraints.   The number 629.276 has the Relative Index entry “Air bags—automobile,” among others.  The Library of Congress subject heading “Automobiles—Occupant restraint systems” has been editorially mapped to 629.276 (in WebDewey).